Update to the Stages of Literacy Development Page

The following paragraphs and graphs have been added to the Stages of Literacy Development page ... Explore an enjoy!

Even though developmental accounts of literacy tend to focus predominantly on the early years, there is the need to account for the "long term developmental process ... to investigate how reading develops across the lifespan by building on the vast literatures in developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, expertise, motivation, and domain-specific learning, as well as reading research" (Anderson, 2007, pg. 415). In her article "The Paths to Competence", Patricia Anderson (2007) notes three domains that develop as a reader develops. These domains are represented in the three graphs that appear below, which bear an uncanny resemblance (schematically) to the graphs (in the main page). We've also added a fourth table from Olson (2007) that indicates cognitive strategies that must be fostered over time for mature, rich comprehension.

Anderson proposes the following three changes that occur as readers progress from the beginning (or acclimation) phase through to the competence stages and on to the status of proficient or expert readers:

  • First, the individual's topic/subject-matter knowledge must grow in tandem with one's knowledge of the attributes of reading. Consequently, early guided reading experiences of picture books require children to demonstrate limited knowledge in either area in order to engage in rich, reading on the lap of a caring adult. However, knowledge of reading and topic knowledge become "increasing interconnected as individuals achieve competence" and as individuals are expected to extract and process information more independently.
  • Second, in the early stages, individuals are motivated predominantly through "situational interest" such as the people involved (e.g. parents), their enthusiasm, engaging books and resources, etc. However, as time passes, individuals are motivated more by individual interests, such as preferred topics, goals and aspirations, and the formation of identities. 
  • Third (and perhaps most importantly), readers move from a reliance on surface-processing strategies to the increasing use of deep-processing strategies. Surface-processing strategies include such procedures as "rereading, altering reading rate, or omitting unfamiliar words" to monitor comprehension/attention. These strategies help one stay on task, correct mistakes, and gain a literal understanding of texts. Deep-processing strategies include "cross-text comparisons, creating alternative representations or questioning a source." Deep-processing strategies focus greater energies on synthesing, analysing and critiquing texts.

Continue on to the page to explore more ...

Traversing the Topical Landscape of Reading and Writing

In Philosophical Investigations (1958), Wittgenstein characterized the philosophical remarks that comprise his book as journeyings across a landscape. McGinley and Tierney (1989, p. 250) adopted that representation in depicting reading and writing as ways of traversing a topical landscape: 

“After Wittgenstein (1953), we also take the theoretical position that a topic of study is analogous to a landscape about which knowledge is best acquired by ‘traversing’ it from a variety of perspectives. However, in our system, different forms of reading and writing represent the ‘traversal routes’ or cases through which an individual can explore a given content domain. As the combined assemblages of several cases provide multiple routes for acquiring knowledge, we argue that more complex or diverse combinations of different forms of reading and writing provide a learner with the means to conduct a more critical examination of a topic by way of the multiple perspectives or ways of ‘seeing’ and thinking that these reading and writing exchanges permit.”

I am quite confident that I will be using the above quote in the near future to characterise my approach to literacy since it shares the sentiment of A Teacher for All Seasons.

Reference
McGinley, W., & Tierney, R. J. (1989). Traversing the topical landscape: reading and writing as ways of knowing. Written Communication, 6(3), 243–269.

Language Games and Language Learning

When one mentions the concept of language game in relation to Wittgenstein, there are four related concepts that come to mind: context, intention, other people and purpose. That is, as one develops into a language, one comes to use language in a range of contexts with learned intentions amongst a community of people for diverse purposes. To be proficient in one language game is only a partial proficiency as it is the amalgamation of language practices that will make up that which will be referred to as proficiency.

There will be certain practices that we assume all members of a community of practice will share. We will call this extensive knowledge (Gee 2008). There will be other, specialised practices that some members of the community will have deep knowledge/experience of and which will be called upon by the general community. We will call this intensive knowledge (Gee, 2008). We encourage individuals to specialise and build up intensive knowledge, so that it can be supplied to others (usually for a price). How else would a comedian make a living?

Therefore, we would like all members of a community to be able to report information, reflect and record, speculate, joke, contemplate, etc. We would like all members of a community to be appreciative of the language practices that help one make decisions, rationalise, etc. However, this does not mean that we want everyone to be Shakespeare, a person who attained an intensive, poetical knowledge for his generation and who was called upon by his community to present for public education, entertainment, etc. Does this mean that we leave poetic practice to Shakespeare? No, extensive practices are expected across the population even if certain individuals attain intensive practice. Across the community, there is a need for extensive practice in the contemplative, speculative, political and aesthetic function of poetry.

As noted by Ken Hyland, “the last decade or so has seen increasing attention given to the notion of genre and its application in language teaching and learning. This is largely a response to changing views of discourse and of learning to write which incorporate better understandings of how language is structured to achieve social purposes in particular contexts of use” (Hyland, 2007, pg. 148).

 

Reference

Gee, J. P. (2008) A sociocultural perspective on opportunity to learn. In P. Moss, D. Pullin, J.P. Gee, E. Haertel, and L. Young (Eds). Assessment, equity, and opportunity to learn (pp. 76-108). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hyland, K. (2007). Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16(3), 148–164. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.07.005

 

 

What have I been reading?

Anyone curious about what I have been reading? Well, here is a list of articles that I have scoured in the past couple weeks:

  • Biggs, M. A. R. (2004). Visualisation and Wittgenstein’s “Tractatus.” Studies in Multidisciplinarity, 2(1961), 293–303.
  • Bowyer-Crane, C., Snowling, M. J., Duff, F. J., Fieldsend, E., Carroll, J. M., Miles, J., … Hulme, C. (2008). Improving early language and literacy skills: differential effects of an oral language versus a phonology with reading intervention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(4), 422–32. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01849.x
  • Fricke, S., Bowyer-Crane, C., Haley, A. J., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2013). Efficacy of language intervention in the early years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54(3), 280–90. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12010
  • Guthrie, J. T. (2001). Contexts for Engagement and Motivation in Reading. Reading Online, 4(8). Retrieved from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/handbook/guthrie/
  • Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2011). Children’s Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Nature, Causes, and Treatments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(3), 139–142. doi:10.1177/0963721411408673
  • Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2013). Learning to Read: What We Know and What We Need to Understand Better. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 1–5. doi:10.1111/cdep.12005
  • May, S. (2007). Sustaining Effective Literacy Practices Over Time in Secondary Schools: School Organisational and Change Issues. Language and Education, 21(5), 387–405. doi:10.2167/le799.0
  • Olson, C. B., & Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English, 41(3), 269–303. Retrieved from <Go to ISI>://WOS:000244438000003
  • Sailors, M., Hoffman, J. V, Pearson, P. D., Mcclung, N., Shin, J., Phiri, L. M., & Saka, T. (2012). Supporting Change in Literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 49(2), 209–231. doi:10.1002/rrq.70
  • Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2011). The Percentage of Words Known in a Text and Reading Comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 26–43. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01146.x
  • Shanahan, T. (2008). Literacy across the lifespan: what works? Community Literacy Journal, 3(1), 3–20.
  • Snow, C. E. (2002). Variability in reading comprehension. Reading, 19–28. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1465/
  • What, I. E. S., & Clearinghouse, W. (2012). Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers.

Language is the carrier of the human culture

“And language is the carrier of the human culture, by which mankind continually produces and contemplates itself, a reflection of our species–being. Language, one might say, is the medium of mind, the element in which our minds dwell as our bodies dwell on earth in the air. In mastering language, we take on a culture; our native language becomes a part of ourselves, of the very structure of the self. Thus language has dual aspects: it is our means for self-expression, for articulating our unique individuality; yet at the same time it is what we have in common with other members of our community, what makes us like them and binds us to them. As a consequence, language lies at the heart of the problem of membership - in a group, in a culture, in a society, in a polity - central to almost every theoretical issue in social and political study.”
— (Pitkin, 1972, pg. 3)

Pitkin, H. F. (1972). Wittgenstein and Justice. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

What Are Some Key Questions to Ask When Choosing Teaching Methods and Materials for Literacy Instruction?

The following is a quite rough attempt to draft some questions that teachers can consider when selecting teaching methods and materials in a literacy program. The questions ask teacher to reflect upon such items as the developmental stage(s) of learners, the degree of balance in instruction, whether content is suitable, and the adequacy of planing/assessment practices. It is hoped that these questions will be refined and explained in the future. Please explore and enjoy!!

 

Stages of Literacy Development

  1. What stage of literacy development would I consider this individual to be at?
  2. Upon what evidence am I making this assessment?
  3. Is the learner at the age-appropriate level?
  4. What factors would account for the learner being at this particular stage? (refer to the component model of reading achievement - cognitive, psychological and ecological factors)
  5. What instruction/practices has the individual had previously?
  6. What instruction would I recommend for this learner and why?
  7. What resources and practice would this include? Are such resources and practice accessible and appropriate?
  8. Does the learner have access to safe, supportive spaces with a coalition of supporters and access to quality materials?
  9. Am I selecting the most appropriate reading material in relation to content, vocabulary, syntax, motivation and engagement?
  10. What other developmental factors must I consider in my assessment? Language skills? Non-verbal cognitive skills? Background knowledge and interests? Maturation? Interests? Relationships?
  11. What are my hopes and aspirations for the learner? What are opportunities that lie ahead? What are some obstacles? What are some of the choices that will need to be made along the way?

 

Balanced Instruction

What are the Focus Areas of Instruction?

  1. How is my instruction balancing core aspects of literacy teaching: phonemic awareness, word recognition, orthography, fluency, composition, comprehension, robust vocabulary development, critical thinking, applied practice, content learning, and independent exploration?
  2. How are learners developing declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge?
  3. How am I focusing on mastery whilst at the same time allowing time for content-based inquiry and exploration?
  4. Are my lessons/units based around thematic investigations?
  5. Are my lessons/units anchored in real-world interaction and problem solving?
  6. Am I able to employ the Language Experience Approach (LEA) to develop language skills, purposeful reading, and non-verbal skills and knowledge?
  7. Is my focus on mastery systemic, intensive, linear though the use of spelling dictionaries, phoneme walls and progress practice with suitable texts?
  8. Is there ample guided and shared reading practice in order to assist with fluency and accuracy?
  9. Is there ample guided and shared reading practice in order to assist with comprehension?
  10. Am I regularly investing in vocabulary development through thematic investigations, word walls, word maps and related vocabulary/conceptual development?
  11. Is time set aside for reading practice and application of the readers’ cognitive toolkit?
  12. Is time set aside for composition with an emphasis on field building, deconstruction, joint construction, guided construction, and independent practice?
  13. In the earlier and later years is there suitable time set aside aside for oral language development (which is known to impact comprehension, vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and print-based skills (which is known to impact fluency and accuracy)?
  14. Does my allocation of instructional time reflect a balanced approach?

 

Content & Contexts

  1. Is all learning based on knowledge exploration? Through LEAs? Thematic investigations? Close readings? Etc?
  2. Am I taking into account learners’ prior knowledge and present explorations when preparing LEAs and thematic investigations?
  3. Is the scaffolding provided for content-based learning adequate to enhance deep learning and discovery?
  4. Is the learning taking into consideration the context in which the learning will be applied?

 

In Relationship to Specific Ages and/or Groups

  1. Must I consider the unique experiences of particular ages or groups, such as pre-school learners, English language learners, those with learning difficulties, or adult learnings with limited literacy and/or English?
  2. If so, how does this affect my teaching?
  3. How do I take these factors into consideration?
  4. What are the literacy needs? language needs? learning needs? non-verbal needs? etc?
  5. Why must I continue to ensure that the teaching is developmentally appropriate with high expectations and quality support?

 

Planning & Assessment

Have I taken into account each level of literacy engagement?

  1. Have I taken all the factors above in my planning?
  2. Is my instruction evolving as the learners develop?
  3. Does my weekly timetable make best use of instructional time?
  4. Am I effective in my use of literacy rotations?
  5. What evidence am I collecting to make formative assessments on learners’ progress?
  6. Am I supported in the decisions that I make? Am I able to collaborate with others?
  7. Are my planning & assessment activities fair and adequate?
  8. Have I achieved balance in my instruction?
  9. Is my teaching structured, challenging and creative?
  10. Do I have a clear vision of the pathways for learners?
  11. Do I take into consideration individual differences and differentiate instruction accordingly?
  12. Does my teaching respond to the cultural and contextual diversity of my learners and the community?
  13. Do I consult with a wide range of stakeholders during my planning, preparation, delivery and evaluation?

Teaching Practice Must Progress in Keeping with the Stages of Reading Development

Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic College Publishers.

Over the past couple months, we have made regular reference to Chall's six stages of reading development, which accounts for reading development from birth to adulthood. For that reason, we have added a specific section on the stages of literacy development to the Teaching Folder of the site. Therefore, it provides us with a platform to explore the way in which pedagogy changes as learners develop throughout the developmental sequence. 

If we borrow Wittgenstein’s concepts here, a developmental account of a language/literacy learning progression is sensitive to the way perception (aspect seeing) changes, practices form, attitudes develop, knowledge takes shape and (literate) forms of life take root (or fail to do so). We need to marvel at how learning transpires and how each new act of learning builds from that which came before. We need to be amazed at the small steps and giant leaps that occur. We need to be cautious of stagnation and entropy.

In time, we will address the following sequence of questions for each of the six levels.

1. What does instruction look like at this stage?

  • activities, routines, etc;
  • books and other texts;
  • writing tasks;
  • formal and informal activities; 
  • independent activity.

2. What should learners be able to accomplish/engage in?

  • independently;
  • with guidance;
  • jointly;
  • if/when modelled.

3. What would gradual release of control (or apprenticeship) look like at this stage?

4. At the end of the stage,  how is the learner prepared for the subsequent stage?

Chiu, M. M., McBride-Chang, C., & Lin, D. (2012). Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 391–405.

5. What would be characteristic age range be for this stage? What support/intervention should be provided if a learner is failing behind? 

6. How does one coordinate learning/support if there is a substantial difference between the learner's age and developmental stage? How does one choose content that is both linguistically and age appropriate?

7 How can we use the component model of reading development (depicted to the right)  to (a) identify potential assets/deficits exhibited by the learners and (b) to strategise with a multi-dimensional approach to building capacity in each area?

The sequence of images below demonstrates how the balance of instruction and approach alters across a learner’s lifespan. I invite you to explore the Stages of Literacy page. Explore and enjoy!

p.s. Even though one may be tempted to see skills progressing in a purely sequential manner, I would like to emphasise that each skill domain should be practiced/experienced to some extent at each stage of a reader/writer's development. The following table illustrates a significant point: at any given stage there should be literacy elements that we expect the individual to be able to practice explicitly (e.g. spelling) as well as other elements that individual can participate in with guidance (e.g. prompting or scaffolding a story) or jointly with a peer or adult.

 
 

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References

Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic College Publishers.

Chiu, M. M., McBride-Chang, C., & Lin, D. (2012). Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: testing the component model of reading in fourth graders across 38 countries. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 391–405. doi:10.1177/0022219411431241

Progress with the Balanced Teaching page

I am pleased to announce progress with the Balanced Teaching page on the Wittgenstein on Learning website. This update includes a comprehensive, referenced introduction for the coming teaching presentations. Select the image and/or link below to begin exploring.

Podcast #3: Commanding a Clear View

Welcome to the third episode of the Wittgenstein On Learning Podcast. In this episode, I discuss Wittgenstein's concept of commanding a clear view. Given the amount of time spent recently on literacy pedagogy in the blog (wittgenstein-on-learning.com/journal), some may be surprised at the choice of topic. However, the topic makes perfect sense. Over the past few weeks, I have been committed to gaining a clear view of the topics of language and literacy development. I have taken a reflective stance of seeking an overarching description of my topic. With such a viewpoint, it is easier to "find my way about". In this podcast, I speak about commanding a clear view in a more general way, and I speak about the significant yet difficult task of developing a synoptic view over our knowledge. That said, any such achievement must be balanced with real practice. In other words, a thinker must spend time ommanding a clear view whilst also getting to the rough ground  to test and refine one's ideas. Or as Wittgenstein puts it, "thinking too has a time for ploughing and a time for gathering the harvest." (Culture & Value).

Four Essays on the Elements of a Balanced Literacy Program

The following four "essays" each tackle the same question: "how do we foster a comprehensive and rich literacy program?" Whilst the essays risk repetition (starting with their descriptions below), they each represent a renewed attempt the explore the same very vexed question. Of the four essays, the essay A Teacher for All Seasons and All Places goes the furthest by taking into account the impact of literacy in the home environment and also speaking about factors that can increase equity in opportunity to learn.

Like previous essays, the following first appeared as Journal entries, but now find themselves revised and updated. (The first - Managing a Balanced Approach to Literacy - first appear in November 2013.) You will find that each reflects the same division of perspectives on language & literacy highlighted in the page titled, Why Wittgenstein? Why not a general site about literacy? Please explore, enjoy and share your thoughts!

Two New Essays: On Literacy & On Practices

This entry comes with a sense of accomplishment. We are pleased to share two (new) essays that reflect important principles from Wittgenstein On Learning. As with many of the essays, both essays initially appeared in the Journal and have been revised and updated for the Essays Section. One essay appeared fairly recently in the Journal (3 July) and it is titled A Framework For Considering Literacy Instruction. The essay seeks to provide a framework for comprehensive and balanced literacy instruction which reflects the developmental stages of literacy and the multifaceted nature of language development.

The other essay is a more expansive attempt to cover its topic. It first appeared as a five-part series starting in January and it now exists as a unified essay that comes in at over 7,000 words (which - in hindsight - is not very much). It focuses on our practices and it is entitled Why Do We Do What We Do?.  Taken together both essays reflect upon two principles that underpin the themes on this site: how we come to see (read) in particular ways and how we come to act (practice) with others within a community. Please explore and enjoy!